The bond angles between the four oxygen and sulfur atoms is 109.5 degrees. The sulfate ion has a two-dimensional structure, and its shape is tetrahedral. Ions that have a negative charge are called anions, and positively charged ions are called cations. The remainder of oxygen atoms will have the same formal charge. The formal charge of the sulfate ion, which has the molecular formula (SO4)2-, is -2. We find that sulfur is predominantly multiply charged, whereas oxygen is more evenly distributed between singly and doubly charged states. There are 6 nonbonding electrons (circled in green) and 2 bonding electrons (circled in pink). Energetic sulfur and oxygen charge states can be inferred through a dispersion analysis of dynamic injections that makes use of the charge‐dependent nature of the gradient‐curvature azimuthal drift. We present here a complete list of ion injections observed with EPD over the whole mission. However, indirect analyses of the data have extracted the charge state of a few sulfur events. This could not be confirmed directly with EPD because that detector does not separate heavy ion measurements by charge state. By looking at the same question, other researchers have proposed that the heavies are multiply charged, leading to differences in how the particles are lost. If their source and transport processes are similar, as we hypothesize here, then it is difficult to reconcile their different pitch angle distributions.
At similar energies, these distributions have important differences. Pitch angle distributions of proton and energetic heavy ion fluxes near Europa's orbit have been measured by the Galileo Energetic Particles Detector (EPD). Charge states of energetic oxygen and sulfur ions in Jupiter's magnetosphere Charge states of energetic oxygen and sulfur ions in Jupiter's magnetosphereĬlark, G.
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